Investigating Content and Language Integration in an EFL Textbook: A Corpus-Based Study

Investigating Content and Language Integration in an EFL Textbook: A Corpus-Based Study

Correspondence:	Amna Arshad <amna.arshad901@gmail.com>	PhD Candidate, Department of Applied Linguistics, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
	Prof. Dr. Muhammad Asim Mahmood	Dean Faculty of Social Sciences, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan

Abstract

This research evaluates an English language textbook from CLIL­­ perspective. For this purpose, an intermediate level (grade-11) English language textbook has been selected and analyzed utilizing Coyle’s conceptual framework of 4Cs (i.e. content, cognition, communication and culture).Content, communication, and culture have been explored through a checklist, whereas cognition has been explored by developing a corpus from the questions given in the exercises of the textbook and analyzing in the light of Bloom’s taxonomy. The results reveal certain breeches between CLIL features and the textbook’s contents. Layout, learning outcomes, organization of the content, subject matter, authenticity of the text, exercises, and focus on language skills does not seem to match with CLIL p­­erspectives. Listening and speaking skills are observed to be ignored. Moreover, the exercises do not seem to foster critical thinking and interaction between students and teachers. Most of the questions are observed covering only first two levels (i.e. knowledge and comprehension) of Bloom’s taxonomy. The study concludes that CLIL principles are not integrated in the textbook. Therefore, the textbook is not suitable to an ESL/EFL setting.  

Keywords: Bloom’s taxonomy; content and language integrated learning; textbook evaluation

1. Introduction

CLIL has been described as the most recent developmental stage of the communicative language teaching (Dalton-Puffer, 2007; Georgiou, 2012). CLIL is an acronym that is used as a generic term that has been given numerous interpretations. Marsh (1994 in Ioannou-Georgiou & Pavlou, 2011) defined this acronym initially as “Content language integrated learning” that refers to such situations in which subjects or parts of subjects are taught in a foreign language with dual focuses i.e. content and a foreign language learning simultaneously. Coyle (1999) stated that CLIL is an influential pedagogical tool aiming to safeguard the particular subject being taught while promoting another language other than mother tongue for learning purpose as well as with an aim of learning process itself. The main idea behind this approach is to teach the students the content of a subject and at the same time, learn a foreign language as a learning tool. Due to this reason, content language integrated learning cannot be defined as a methodology of language learning. The first approximation, towards this concept, is to consider content language integrated learning as a convergence of many ELT methods and not mere as unique and isolated teaching trend. CLIL contains a number of approaches and methods that could be seen on a continuum, at one end, greater interest in teaching instruction through L2 and at the other end, focus on second or foreign language learning (Banegas, 2011). Lasagabaster (2008) states that CLIL is the integration of content with language or learning with the help of language. The learning can be optimized by providing the learners with an opportunity to context-based education that results in a dialogue to accomplish language teaching objectives (Hadley, Long & Luna, 2000). Similarly, Mohan (1986) declared that language teaching is inadequate without incorporating subject matter and immersion method is useful to teach second language (Mangubhai, 2005).

Since teaching a language through specific subjects has not been identified as effective, rather CLIL may also present to acquire a foreign language to attain more successful subjects. CLIL is mistakenly considered as a language teaching method, as it fosters other essential skills for child development. Cultural awareness and cognitive ability are the cases of it. In fact, CLIL is socially connected to bilingualism. Therefore, CLIL model has its roots in bilingual education.

Integration lies in the heart of CLIL teaching approach. The framework of 4Cs (see Figure 1), developed by Coyle (2005), offers essential principles to content language integrated learning approach. These principles provide guidance for selecting CLIL-focused textbooks. He defined the 4C as four dimensions i.e. (1) content: it provides opportunities of rich context that turns language acquisition into practices; (2) communication: it enables the learners to improve overall competence in target language. It helps develop oral communication and deepen learners’ awareness in both i.e. target and mother languages. It assists in developing plurilingual interests and attitudes. Both writing and speaking are emphasized. In this way, students use language to learn and learn to use language cognition and culture; (3) cognition: in teaching-learning process, cognition lies in the heart of the model and it refers to thinking skills that should be developed in order to link concrete and abstract learning, formation of the concepts and understanding to the language; (4) culture: activities and lesson provide learners with shared understandings and alternative perspectives which deepen understanding among learners about self and otherness. Consequently, CLIL builds intercultural understanding and knowledge. In addition, it helps introduce wider cultural context to learners and develop their intercultural communication.

Figure 1: Conceptual Framework for CLIL

A crucial aspect is to rethink about language using and language learning in CLIL, according to Coyle (2005) a foreign language cannot be packed into grammatical developments leaving complex linguistic construction and past tenses “until later”. Coyle reflects on one of the main differences between language using and language learning. In CLIL context, language use is different from the language use in language classrooms i.e. the students need to argue, discuss, justify, explain and debate, and issues linked to language content use and adequate content for specific vocabulary studies. This is one of the main reasons why scaffolding a language is important in CLIL classrooms. The taught component of content determines the language for CLIL classrooms, for this reason, defining the language for learning, through learning and for learning, aka The Language Triptych (see Figure 2), becomes one of the crucial issues in CLIL approach (Coyle, Hood & Marsh, 2010). Language of learning refers to the learners and language that learners are required to access basic skills and concepts related to the content. Language for learning particularly focuses on language to enable individuals to learn in foreign language settings i.e. how to develop learning strategies, how to operate group discussion, how to hypothesize and summarize and ask questions that challenge cognitively. Language through learning refers to the notion that language learning cannot take place without active participation in thinking and language. CLIL classroom settings demands different level of interaction and talking as compared to traditional language classroom.

Source: Coyle, Hood and Marsh (2010)

Figure 2: Language Triptych

CLIL is recent approach to develop material and evaluate textbooks in an area which is still to be developed. This research adopts tentative CLIL textbook evaluation checklist. From last three decades, numerous checklists have been developed to evaluate ELT textbooks but this research focuses on the elaboration of checklist that should have main characteristics of CLIL. Textbook evaluation checklist consists of a set criterion. Evaluation checklists are useful instruments to select, adapt or evaluate textbooks for teachers (McGrath, 2002; Sheldon, 1988). McGrath (2002) points out that it is not a watertight category. It differentiates system (objective) with impression (subjective), cost effective, significant information can be obtained a within short time period. Moreover, it provides easy format to informants to provide information.

Checklist limitations depend on inclusion criteria that are bound with context during its creation and according to the need to adapt some checklist and tailor the checklist in terms of specific context. Demir and Ertas (2014) summarize the fact that in the light of literature no checklist is complete. In spite of the item number it is made up of, it can modify by deleting or adding items depending on the instructional settings. Preeminent theorists in ELT textbook design and evaluation field like Brown (1995), Cunningsworth (1995), Sheldon (1988) and Williams (1983) mutually agreed that textbook checklist evaluation criteria should have pertaining criteria to physical characteristics such as layout, organization and other logistical characteristics. Other criteria should also be taken into consideration like assess textbook methodology, approaches and aims and define the degree to which extent material is not only teachable but fits according to the needs of learners and teacher and overall organization of the curriculum, language skills, vocabulary, grammar as well as linguistic items to the dominant socio-cultural environment, gender, culture and to determine the extent i.e. subject, culture, linguistic item and topics match with the personality of the students, needs, interests, backgrounds of the students and institutes.

ELT practitioners help evaluate the efficacy of language teaching materials from different perspectives through evaluation checklist e.g. (1) predictive and retrospective (Ellis, 1997), (2) pre-use, in-use, and post-use (Tomlinson, 2003). Littlejohn (1998, 2011) suggested three levels for evaluation (i) What is there? (ii) What is required of users? (iii) What is implied? Evaluation checklists, prepared by leading experts, provide criteria for textbook evaluation in detail. McGrath (2002) proposed two-stages criteria i.e. (a) first glance (b) in-depth. The other well-established checklists have been proposed by Tucker (1975), Daoud and Celce-Murcia (1979), Sheldon (1988), Cunningsworth (1995), Ellis (1997), McGrath (2002), Mukundan and Ahour, (2010). Skierso (1991) proposed an evaluation checklist in which the material had been divided into five sections: bibliographical data, aims and goals, lay out, subject matter, vocabulary and structure and physical make up. Garinger (2001 in AbdelWahab, 2013) stated that while evaluating a textbook three contents are required to be evaluated i.e., depth and breadth of material, teaching objectives and whether the textbook is needed to be supplementary material or not. This evaluation checklist was consistent with the evaluation checklist proposed by Cunningsworth (1995) i.e. one of the most considerable work in ESL/EFL textbook evaluation. His checklist included 45 criteria and eight categories for the general evaluation of the textbook i.e. aims and approaches, organization/design, study skills, language content, topic, methodology, teacher’s manual and practical consideration.

Stardling (2001) analytical framework constructed the framework of four categories and posed forty probing questions. The first category dealt with evaluation of coverage, textbook content, sequencing and curriculum, incorporation of multi-perspectives, regional and cultural categories and omissions. Second category, identifying pedagogical value of the textbook, raises questions related to students’ prior knowledge, whether the textbook promotes skill-based learning or memorization, on use of pictures or charts, on explanation of historical concepts, and on fostering critical thinking. The third category, identifying intrinsic qualities of the history textbook, included questions on textbook pitch, on whether the textbook depends on reductionism, identifying authors’ bias. The last category consisted on extrinsic factors that may impact on the book. A question to discover when the book was first available in the market, robustness and price of the book, whether the book is designed for specific group of students and to which extent the textbook required alternative resources are included in this category. Stardling (2001) evaluation checklist question can be refined, re-clustered and it requires more categories. He proposes different categories as compared to Stardling checklist like ‘readability’, ‘format’, and ‘quality of the text’ but these questions are quite similar to Stardling checklist. Stardling referred to analytical criteria for material evaluation to be used by selection committees of textbooks and teachers.

Most of the researches have been conducted on textbook evaluation by applying ELT based evaluation checklists ignoring specific elements like content contextual, communicative, cognitive aspects. For instance, Jahangard (2007) developed an evaluation checklist to evaluate four EFL textbooks prescribed by Iranian high school by Ministry of Education. The merits and demerits of the textbooks were discussed with reference to 13 common extracted features from different checklists. The evaluation criteria included explicit objectives, vocabulary explanation, visuals, educational approaches, topic and task, review and test section, layout, authentic language, graded content, clear instructions, presentation and practice of grammar, learning strategies and fluency in four language skills. The evaluation checklist was evaluated by teachers. Results showed that the textbook focused only reading skills and grammar practice ignoring up-dated topics, incompatibility between word meaning in the ‘New Word Section’ and ‘Reading Comprehension Section’. The study was subjective and theoretical. It also involved author’s opinion without user’s feedback. 

Litz (2005) evaluated a textbook used for undergraduate English students of South Korea through a questionnaire filled in by teachers and students. His questionnaire was designed to evaluate overall suitability and overall pedagogical value of the language program of the textbook including layout and design, practical consideration (price, methodology, accessories etc.), skills integration and appropriateness, balance and range of activities, cultural and social considerations, and language types and subject content in the textbook. The findings showed that textbook was communicative and focused on multi-skills. Activities involved both communicative and controlled practice of language skills. Students were allowed to give freer response. The researcher found shortcomings in the textbook through teacher and students filled checklist e.g. repetition of activities, lack of realistic discourse, lack of encouragement of meaningful practice. The use of questionnaire was not persuasive enough as questionnaire had its own weakness.

Dat (2008) evaluated nine ELT textbooks by interviewing teachers, administrators and policy makers in South Asian context. He used questionnaires also to describe the perceptions of teachers and students. The findings identified the positive features e.g. national identity and cultural knowledge, knowledge of regional events, awareness about global integrity, analytical thinking and SL as a pedagogical tool. Its drawback was the uncommunicative use of English, unauthentic use of English language, no writing practice, and poor effective engagement. The textbook lacking to meet the principles of content language integrated learning.

In the context of Pakistan, especially with reference to Punjab province, few researches have been conducted on textbook evaluation. Naseem, Shah and Tabassum (2015) evaluated English textbook approved by Punjab Textbook Board (PTB) for 9^th class. The data was collected through an evaluation checklist which was designed by reviewing well-developed checklists. The checklist comprised of different levels i.e. (1) First Glance (different activities of the textbook), (2) Close Evaluation (Physical and utilitarian attributes, (2) Efficient outlay of objectives and supplementary materials, and (4) learning-teaching content. The findings showed that PTB English textbook for 9^th class was incompatible with the needs of promoting integrated skills and also failed to meet general objectives. There was no balance between language skills. Most importantly, the textbook did not cater needs of variety of learners.

Kausar, Mushtaq and Badshah (2016) conducted a study to evaluate an English textbook from both teachers’ and students’ perspective. The questionnaire was adapted from a checklist by Litz (2005) covering six perspectives i.e. outline and planning, language skills, exercises, type of language, overall view, topic and theme. The data was collected from 100 students and 10 teachers. The findings revealed that there was shortfall in the organization, subject matter, outline and planning as well as exercises. The teachers and learners did not recommend this book for future. The textbook needed revisions as it did not cater students’ needs. Nazeer, Shah, Sarwat (2015) adapted the evaluation checklists proposed and revised by (Mukundan, Hajimohammadi & Nimehchisalem, 2011) in their study. The results highlighted a number of short comings e.g. absence of visual aspects. The researchers recommended revising the textbook to include language skills. Ahmad, Ismail and Saba (2019) evaluated the content of English-2 approved by Punjab Curriculum and Textbook Board (PCTB), Lahore, Pakistan applying a checklist based on communicative language teaching principles. The results revealed breeches between the textbook’s content and communicative language teaching principles. Therefore, revisions were recommended in the content of the said textbook. Thus, it can be assumed that Pakistani textbooks are not suitable to meet the communicative needs of the learners.

According to the claim of Georgiou (2012) CLIL is the most recent developmental stage of the communicative language teaching (CLT). A review of the past researches shows that there is no such research as has evaluated English textbooks from communicative language teaching perspective and content analysis. Content analysis checklists/questionnaires are used to analyze the content of the English language textbooks. The questionnaires were designed to take teachers’ and students’ perspectives about the content of the book that might be subjective. There is lack of proper research held to delve deep in English textbooks from CLIL model in Pakistani context. However, some studies have been conducted in other countries based on CLT principles’ evaluation checklists e.g. Liao (2000) conducted a research in China to investigate the application of communicative language teaching principles. His results showed that three difficulties were hurdles in the way of successful application of communicative teaching method i.e. lack of target language cultural knowledge, no familiarity with new emerging communicative method, negative influence of old educational tradition on teacher. Furthermore, language and culture are inseparable so that Chinese are not aware of target language due to this they are not proficient in English language and lack of authentic material is another key factor.

Mustafa (2009 in Noori, 2018) carried out research in Indonesia through classroom observation. He identified real position of CLT in Indonesian educational settings. He argued that communicative language teaching was not coping with the needs of the students. He added that practicing communicative language teaching was not easy in Indonesian educational context. The key factors of failure of communicative language teaching were time constraint, teacher’s less proficiency in English language, emphasis on written exams, absence of authentic material, teachers’ emphasis on form rather content, absence of real-life communication and social interaction that helped the students perform outside the classrooms.

Aftab (2012) evaluated a seven series of ELT textbooks used in Punjab in public and private sector institutes. Data was collected through questionnaires, interviews and documentation including participants, officials, school administrators, English language teachers and students. CLT textbook evaluation checklist was also employed. The author concluded that textbooks like ‘Every Day English Book 6’ orders, instructions, and polite requests in: Guided English Book 0” were linguistically appropriate and focused on functions of language. Some books: English Book 6; Every Day English Book 6; Oxford Progressive English Book 5; Oxford Progressive English Book 6, have useful topics and integrated skills learning. Few books: Oxford Progressive English Book 5, Oxford Progressive English Book 6, had for vocabulary building and variety of authentic reading text. He concluded that writing and listening skills were ignored and speaking was unrealistic (speaking skills also focused on ‘Guided English 0’). The content suggested for oral practice in “Oxford Progressive English Book 6”were either selected from text or given subjectively. The textbooks were focused on accuracy rather than communicative potential. However, he did not investigate the organization and activities of the textbooks in detail.

The literature on ELT material development is extensively available and easily accessible. However, the area of textbook evaluation is under-researched, with limited relevant literature (Dendrinos, 1992; Litz, 2005; Sheldon, 1988). The researches on textbook evaluation mostly used general ELT evaluation checklists. Up till now, a few researches in Pakistan have been conducted to evaluate English language textbooks from ELT perspectives including predictive and retrospective methods but a few components of CLIL checklist have been incorporated in them. In addition, there is no such research as investigated 4Cs of CLIL model in English language textbooks. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the content of an intermediate level English language textbook through a CLIL based checklist in order to find out the integration of language and content at four dimensions i.e. content, cognition, culture and communication. This study is pioneering in its nature and focuses to answer the following questions:

1.  How well Intermediate English textbook is structurally and physically organized?

2.  How do the activities of the textbook integrate content and language and covers needs of ESL learners for language learning?

3.  Do activities promote student-students and teacher-student interaction to achieve communicative competence and foster critical thinking?

4.  Does the English textbook promote intercultural or biased views of culture among ESL learners?

2. Methodology

This study is qualitative and quantitative in nature. The researchers created a tentative content language integrated learning textbook evaluation checklist taking into consideration two areas i.e. by reviewing the existing instruments for ELT textbook evaluation and established principles for CLIL material production. It is important to mention that the textbook researchers have introduced a number of checklists (see Table 1) for evaluation purpose in different contexts and from different perspectives.

Table 1: Checklists Introduced by Past Researchers

Decade	Year	Checklist
1970s	1975	Tucker
	1979	Daoud and Celce-Murcia
1980s	1983	Williams
	1988	Sheldon
1990s	1991	Skierso
	1995	Cunningsworth
	1996	Ur
	1998	Littlejohn

Munkundan and Ahour (2010) reviewed the textbook evaluation checklists, (introduced from 1970 to 2000), and claimed that the textbook evaluation checklists were either qualitative (see e.g. Cunningsworth, 1984, 1995; Dougill, 1987; Griffiths, 1995; Hemsley, 1997; Hutchinson & Waters, 1987; Karamoozian & Riazi, 2008; McGrath, 2002; Sheldon, 1988) or quantitative (see e.g. Daoud & Celce-Murcia, 1979; Litz, 2005; Miekley, 2005; Sheldon, 1988; Skierso, 1991; Tucker, 1975; Williams, 1983) or outline format/head words i.e. without questions and rating scales (see e.g. Ansari & Babaii, 2002; Brown, 1995; Littlejohn, 1998). Their reviews, for the evaluation instruments to identify a well-proposed evaluation checklist, eventually helped Munkundan, Hajimohammadi and Nimechisalem (2011) develop a better checklist to evaluate ELT materials.

In the field of textbook evaluation, methodology is rarely described in-depth. Research procedures, data processing and interpretation are taken into account while writing methodology. The methods for textbook evaluation can be classified into detailed categories i.e. (1) methods of theoretical analysis (i) the special- analytical method (ii) the theoretical-analytical methods (iii) the comparative analysis of textbook (2) empirical analytical methods i.e. (i) investigate experimentally in textbooks use (ii) public inquiry applied to teachers (iii) Public inquiry applied to learners and (3) statistical methods (Hrehovcik, 2002).

Literature shows that the methods of textbook evaluation are comprised of three ways i.e. impressionistic method, checklist method and in-depth method. This study has employed all of these three methods in order to investigate content language integrated learning in an English language textbook. The CLIL evaluation checklist is adopted from Medina (2016). This checklist is designed by considering the common features of ELT and CLIL textbooks (e.g. language authenticity, availability and others). This is included in first section and other sections have included those features that totally or mostly refer to the content taught through second language. The checklist developer considered Mehisto’s (2012) criteria for CLIL material production. According to Mehisto (2012) the quality of CLIL materials is highly multilayered and integrative and it helps increase the possibility that language learning and content will be meaningful. Other criteria e.g. visible learning process, fostering language skills’ development, or different types of formative assessment is included in Mehisto’s list.

The structure of the CLIL evaluation checklist is consisted on seven sections. Section is comprised of technical and general terms, sections 2 to 5 have the inclusion of 4Cs i.e. content, cognition, communication and culture. Textbooks based on CLIL, section 6 is related to language and last section 7 in the evaluation checklist is to reflect upon CLIL principles’ integration in the analysis of English textbook (Medina, 2016).

The checklist is neither too broad nor too short to be filled in. While, analyzing the content, the textbook is used as a general term for methodologies in which text is codified under different categories (Ahuvia, 2001) i.e. (1) Item evaluation checklist method: this method is objective, systematic and easy to carry out in the way that items in the checklist are checked off in a certain order (AbdelWahab, 2013); (2) In-depth method: proposes a careful examination of grading and sequencing of representative features for instance the treatment of particular language skills, or design of a particular chapter. Cunningsworth (1995) stated that in-depth evaluation provides subsequently detailed evaluation of specific items in any textbook on areas like how exercises can cater for learners and syllabus needs. But this method lacks in overall evaluation of whole book. The researcher filled the checklist in yes or no responses by analyzing the items of checklist through in-depth content analysis of the textbook to avoid subjectivity of the teachers and students while taking their perceptions.

Evaluation checklists, adapted to evaluate English textbooks according to CLIL specifications, are not numerous. The existing EFL/ESL evaluation checklists are not advisable to evaluate English textbooks under CLIL model. In CLIL, the main focus is on content and language revolving around 4Cs i.e. content, cognition, culture and communication. The previous checklists are ELT based.

Moreover, Bloom’s taxonomy (1956) has been employed to investigate the cognition level of questions in the textbook. For this purpose, a corpus was developed from the questions given in textbook’s exercises. The purpose behind this step was to determine whether the activities fostered critical thinking among learners or not. The textbook, which is the subject of this study, is approved by Punjab Curriculum and Textbook Board (PCTB), Lahore, Pakistan. This book is taught to the intermediate level (grade-11) students in Punjab (Pakistan).

3. Observations and Discussions

The evaluation of the textbook is carried by adopting checklist (see Checklist 1) based on CLIL principles. The checklist has six sub-classes. The first sub-class consists of general having other sub-classes e.g. structure, supplementary material and physical utilitarian features, content, culture, communication, cognition and integration.

Evaluation Criteria	Yes	No
I.GENERAL
A. Structure
1. Is the organization consistent with the curriculum?		ü
2. Are the objectives specified specifically?		ü
3. Does it include self-evaluation at the modules?		ü
4. Does it provide summarizing items at the end of the modules?	ü
B. Supplementary material
5. Is the resource pack complete?		ü
6. Does the resource pack include varied ICT resources?		ü
7. Does it offer supplementary material for under/over-achievers?		ü
8. Does it provide guidance for non-native content teachers?		ü
9. Does it provide support for language assistants?		ü
C. Physical and Utilitarian features
10. Does it show quality in editing and publishing		ü
11. Is its layout attractive?		ü
12. Does it contain appropriate pictures, diagrams, tables?		ü
13. Is it easily available?	ü
14. Is it durable?		ü
15. Is it cost effective?	ü

3.1 General

First sub-class comprised of the structure of the textbook, supplementary material for learners and teachers to facilitate learning process and physical characteristics of the textbook to attract the learners.

3.1.1 Structure

The results show that the structure of the textbook does not match with the curriculum. The curriculum claims that the textbook fulfills the academic, job, social and functional needs of the learners. The structure of the textbook is neither satisfactory nor consistent with the structure of the book. There is no functional and logical organization between the content and subject of the book. The lessons are difficult to comprehend by the learners because they are not systematically organized according to different themes. The lessons such as ‘Button Button’, ‘Dark They Were Golden Eyes’ and ‘The Gift of Magi’ are organized by local bodies and written by natives because of that they are far away from the native culture. The topics are not seemed to be linked between units. Moreover, they do not coincide according to the stated function in the curriculum. The organization of the lessons can be considered as a bridge that fills the gap between claims made by the external for the materials and what will actually present inside the material themselves.

The learning objectives are not clearly stated and no concise overview of topics, grammar/structures and language skills are given within each lesson that can be found in the table of the contents. Without specified objectives, objectives are not easily measurable as teacher are not trained in public sector schools according to the community’s language teaching methods. Cunningsworth (1995) stated that pre-defined aims, objectives, and exercises should correspond to curriculum and it gives confidence to less experienced teachers and motivates learning but it is lacking in the textbook. Textbook’s appropriateness to the aims and objectives of the curriculum (Cunningsworth, 1984) is considered as one of the guidelines that form the basis for formulating personalized checklist criteria directing at local relevance. So, the relevance of curriculum, aims and objectives should be related with the textbook (Aftab, 2012). There is no self-evaluation in the textbook. Richards and Rodgers (2014) declare that textbooks encompass learning objectives, language content, activities and roles of the instructor and students, learners’ self-study and provide assistance in second language learning (Saadipour & Shakouri, 2016). There are also no guides for the learners for self-study except the themes are given at the end of lessons that summarize the main idea of the lesson. There are no such questions as motivate the learners for self-study at home. Textbooks provide learners with efficient and additional collection of materials for their self-accessed learning and also for learners’ knowledge consolidation (Cunningsworth, 1995). In this way, textbooks save learners from teachers’ deficiencies and incompetency (Litz, 2005; O’Neil, 1982). The textbook is deficient in the organization of the textbook which is the most appealing thing to the stakeholders.

3.1.2 Supplementary Material

The textbook fails to provide any ICT package for teaching and learning. Audio-visuals aids are altogether ignored by the material developers. No teacher’s guide/manual is available to aid the teacher as it is the main pillar of teaching. Nguyen, Nguyen and Then (2006) state that teacher’s aid encourages learning motivation; develop learners’ creativity and learning styles; making optimal opportunities for language practice; combine all language skills; and use the textbook creatively. Teacher’s aid should be given separately for time saving and conducive teaching-learning environment. It is a widely known fact that most general EFL courses provide teachers’ books as part of the whole materials package. They are important parts of the whole materials package because they have a considerable influence on guiding the teachers. As Cunningsworth (1995) points out ‘a good teacher’s book is invaluable in offering, among other things, guidelines on how to make the best use of the course’ (p. 112). No workbook is available for students for homework. The student workbook provides review exercises and a variety of practice exercises. It should be included to assist with the development of students' proficiency with reading, grammar, spelling, writing, speaking vocabulary has enormous potential for classroom use or for homework assignments. No cassettes are available as supplementary material. Good quality cassettes with natural-sounding recordings of conversation, important points, pronunciation exercises, grammar and listening activities are helpful as teaching aid. No flash cards and posters are available with the textbook to facilitate teaching and learning. It does not provide any language assistance to non-native teachers. Only list of glossaries is given at the end of the lessons consisted on new vocabulary items extracted from the lesson in order to increase the mental lexicon the learners. Due to the inadequacy of supplementary material, learners and teachers use exam drilling supplementary material and guidebooks.

3.1.3 Physical and Utilitarian Features

The physical appearance of the English textbook has also shortcomings. The physical and utilitarian features include outside cover, binding, paper quality, printing, font size, space, adequate use of pictures. The content page list does not provide the details of knowledge areas including vocabulary, grammar, language skills. The content page introduces the uses and variety of English practice to learners. Moreover, it develops social skills, survival and functional skills (apologizing strategies, making requests etc.) in learners (Maris, Soars The findings reveal that textbook does not have positive impressionistic value to attract its stakeholders. The textbook is dull and outside is not informative at all (Naseem, Shah & Tabassum, 2015). It is hard enough to with-stand. Garvin (1988) has done lot of work on quality and quality product of the textbook and he has proposed eight dimensions on ‘product quality’ i.e., performance, features, reliability, conformance, durability, aesthetic, perceived and serviceability.

In terms of physical state, ‘durability’ is relevant at this point of discussion. The quality of paper and its printing and binding should be durable for long term use. In aesthetics it includes: (a) title, font, binding and font size, page layout/format and illustrations; and (b) other graphics-acceptability with respect to level/age relevant to context and content (Khalid, 2009). The used font in the textbook is varied in the whole book. The font used in lesson content is appropriate and easily readable. On the other hand, the font used for stating themes of lessons, poems writing skills activities (sample/comprehension) is very small and white space is quite less which may distract reader while reading samples and attempting comprehension passages.

In PCTB’s English textbook, exercises’ section is over-crowded due to less space. As the white space used for the content lesson is also congested. Usually, students write meanings of difficult words on the book. Due to less space, learners cannot write well. Every space must be used to the optimum, taking into consideration the space that enables readers to rest their eyes (Khalid, 2009). Ahymadpoor (2004) found the lack of high school students in English textbooks due to the boring, unattractive, incoherent texts and outdated, and incorrect, unattractive and inappropriate pictures of the book. There is no use of pictures, or diagrams etc. Textbook is accessible easily and is cost effective as well. So, the overall physical appearance and utilitarian features of the textbook are not attractive and durable. The textbook does not contain realistic or native content and it also lacks in day to day conversation that is the essential need of the ESL learners of Pakistan. The content of the textbook includes exercises and activities as well.

3.2 Content

II. Content	Yes	No
16. Does it cover the content of the curriculum?		ü
17. Are learning outcomes for learning specified?		ü
18. Is the content appropriate for the students’ age?		ü
19. Is the content relevant to students’ experience?		ü
20. Is the order of sequence flexible?		ü
21. Does it provide support to simplify content (scaffolding)?		ü
22. Is the functional content functional?		ü
23. Are the activities suggested for practicing the content varied?	ü
24. Are the activities suggested enough for practicing the content?		ü
25. Is there authentic material at an appropriate level?		ü

By analyzing the content of intermediate English textbook, it is revealed that the content of the textbook are not updated and it does not match with the learners’ cultural background and their knowledge. As the content is written by foreigners due to that it is not according to the learners’ age and experience. The content is old-fashioned and not revised since long. It does not present modern and challenging authentic content to the learners. Liao (2000) noted that use of authentic instructional material designed by natives was too difficult for the foreign language learners with lower proficiency. He suggested using simple authentic material and realia.

Furthermore, the content of the textbook does not contain rich learning content that can be used in practical use. The broader term content includes topics, functional content, exercises and activities that foster higher order skills, scaffolding, and authentic material. Many textbooks are scripted in an inappropriate and unnatural way for communicative purposes and do not prepare students adequately for pronunciation (Brazil, Coulthard & Johns, 1980; Levis, 1999) also structure, language, conversational rules, routines and strategies that they need to use in real life (Yule, Matthis &  Hopkins, 1992). Similar is the case in the present research findings. The textbook scarcely fulfills the required criteria of content which is required for language learning. Through the analysis of the Intermediate English textbook, tasks and exercises do not provide activities for learners to promote communicativeness and do not challenge them cognitively to think in target language. The learners are being controlled by the textbooks in solving questions. Kausar, Mushtaq and Badshah (2016) took the opinion of teachers and students, both were of the view that English textbook, for intermediate level learners; do not cater the needs of the learners. Moreover, the content of the exercises mainly laid emphasis on grammar like unit-based questions, correction of tenses and punctuation. Moreover, the textbook does not enhance critical thinking and creativity. Similar findings are observed in the research conducted in Turkey by Tok (2010). He highlighted that there was a major shortcoming in the English textbook due to the lack of creative activities. The learning outcomes are not specified in the textbook through which teacher can take guideline for achieving those objectives. The selection of the content is inappropriate in ESL context.

During evaluation of the textbook, it is noticed that traditional learning processes (including language learning activities) are in effective. Due to complex and innovative content, textbook does not provide guidance to carry out activities and interaction in the class which ultimately fails to recognize modern teaching methodologies. There is no such activity and exercise as for practicing communication and listening skills while ignoring prosodic features. Most of the exercises are based on GTM that do not enhance their skills and motivate to learn further English. At this point, the effectiveness and utility of the textbook is questioned. Since, the curriculum does not have information in order to determine the fitness of the content that is laid out in the curriculum are according to learning objectives or not. Findings of a study by Shah, Majeed, Waheed and Anjum (2013) showed that according to the learners’ and teachers’ response textbooks were just designed for academic learning rather than communicative needs. There is deficiency of such content as develop learners’ comprehension and critical skills, and enhance their productive ability. These two findings are aligned with the present research results that the major content of the textbook is consisted on exercises and it does not practice writing skills effectively. The questions, in exercises of intermediate English textbook, require answers in the form of composition comprising of 100-150 words that solely focus on content of the unit or story and nothing to do with creativity (Kausar, Mushtaq & Badshah, 2016). So, the activities are enough to practice the content. The textbook does not have challenging, interesting and realistic topics. To some extent, it satisfied the need of diverse content of themes. However, content analysis of the textbook shows no authentic situation that is relevant to the Pakistani learners. In Pakistan, English language education is totally based on cramming to pass out the examination. There is no concept of real life in the textbooks (Shah et al., 2013). The PCTB’s intermediate English textbook presents the content artificially and in a contrived way.

3.3 Cognition

III. Cognition	Yes	No
26. Does it allow breaking down tasks/activities to make them more manageable (scaffolding)		ü
27. Are the activities cognitively appropriate for the content?		ü
28. Does it cater the needs of different learning styles?		ü
29. Do activities activate previous knowledge?		ü
30. Are activities challenging?		ü
31. Do activities include projects?		ü
32. Are activities motivating?		ü

The knowledge acquisition is connected intimately with comprehension. CLIL is incomplete without cognition dimension. Theorists like Baker (2011) conceive cognition as a fifth language skill after listening, speaking, reading and writing in EFL settings (Coyle, 2007). Cognition dimension deals with mental processes like remembering, repeating, questioning, solving problems and decision making. In an English textbook grammar and writing skills are mainly focused through practicing different activities. The activities in the textbook do not break down to make them more manageable. Tomlinson (2008) states textbook as humanistic one that values the learner as a human being and also helps learner in activities given in textbooks and in their learning process that connects mind with what is stated in the textbooks. Every individual has his own learning needs but the textbook does not cater learning styles of the learners. Numerous theorists like Long (1990) and Vygotsky (1978) advocated that cognitive value of learners’ social interaction or learner-learner interaction to promote learning. The given activities are not appropriate cognitively for the content. Thus, it measures low cognitive level of the students. Jacobs and Ball (1996) suggest that the most appropriate activities are those that encourage negotiation of the meaning and facilitate individual accountability through cooperative learning and promote positive interdependence. While analyzing the content, it is observed that activities do not activate prior knowledge of the learners through brain storming, pre-reading, or answer questions. The linguistic complexity in the text is challenging. Jolly and Bolitho (2011) proposed that the textbooks should incorporate activities which provide varied input of authentic language and require the learners to exploit the data using cognitive processes like analyzing (referred to as ‘language awareness activities’). Such tasks will make the students think critically ‘about how language is used for different purposes’ and provide real context to their struggles with language systems.

Composition question answers are to some extent appropriate at this level. But through corpus analysis it has been determined that mostly questions are belonging to the category of Level-1 (i.e. knowledge) and Level-2 (i.e. comprehension) according to Bloom’s taxonomy. There are total 115 short questions and 64 long questions. The short questions are all close-ended questions that evaluate the learners’ knowledge only. For instance, questions 3 (sub-questions) on page (9, 25, 30 etc.) are all knowledge questions that are challenging and not appropriate at point of level. The type of activity does not seek to enhance students’ critical thinking. In short, there is no cognitive progression. Similarly, there are 65 long questions to answer in 100-150 words which are also of comprehension level and the answer is from the content of the lesson. Mostly, questions have stem words (e.g. discuss, how, and why which are close-ended in nature), describe, compare and contrast) in order to check learners’ understanding to see whether they can summarize the whole idea or not. These questions develop the habit of cramming the content not language learning. It creates boredom in the class that is not reasonable pedagogically and will not enrich learners to answer independently.  Thus, they cannot be effective for teaching-learning process.  Activities should have an aim to promote cognitive abilities. Most of the activities are cognitively undemanding. It cannot be disregarded wholly because it boosts up learners’ confidence. There should be balance between LOTS (lower order thinking skills) and HOTS (higher order thinking skills) activities in the book. As at intermediate level students are given questions of analysis and synthesizing to enhance their cognitive abilities. No such projects are included as are the best source to evaluate higher order skills in the learners. The focus is only on accuracy by practicing grammar and controlled writing skills.

3.4 Communication

IV. Communication	Yes	No
34. Does it provide support to simplify language?		ü
35. Does its emphasis communicative competence activities?		ü
36. Are activities developed to encourage teacher-student and student-student communication?		ü
37. Do the activities enable students to use the L2 outside the classroom situations?		ü
38. Are activities balance between individual response, pair work and group work?		ü

Communication is considered one of the primary goals of language and considered as core concept in foreign language learning. For this reason, CLIL is more focused on fluency rather than grammar (Coyle, 2007). In CLIL, the focus is on using language to learn rather learning to use language. In language subject, the main emphasis is on vocabulary acquisition and structure progression. In the selected textbook, there is no practice of simplified use of language in the form of dialogue and conversation that can present the realistic picture of the target culture of second/foreign language to the learners. As a result, communicative competence in English language cannot be achieved as a learning outcome. The textbook does not follow any communicative model of the language. The textbooks should be organized according to language model so that element of realism can be incorporated in materials as it stays learners motivated. But this textbook is based on GTM and no communicative approach is incorporated. In order to make textbooks close to learners’ need and interest, there should be humanistic activities in language teaching materials. Humanistic activities engage learners in interesting way to learn the language. Learners of intermediate level are required to improve their communication skills so that they can perform best in their higher studies. But the textbook provides no opportunity for learner-learner interaction or learner-teacher interaction so that they can improve their communicative and speaking skills. The textbook does not include grammar, listening and creative writing activities at all. For this reason, students after passing their intermediate level are unable to perform outside the classroom. Moreover, oral skills activities (e.g. dialogues and discussion among different groups of students) intended to facilitate learning through genuine interaction and the language skills and sub-skills are presented and practiced. So, the textbook fails to develop communicative strategies among learners.

3.5 Culture

V. Culture	Yes	No
39. Does it relate content to the learners’ culture and environment?		ü
40. Does it guide students in developing cultural awareness?	ü
41. Do the content relevant to the socio-cultural environment?		ü
42. Does the content involve culture-specific items?	ü
43. Is the content free from stereotypical images?		ü
44. Do the visuals relate to the students own cultural settings?		ü
45. Have cultural sensitivities been considered?	ü

In English language textbooks, there is an interdependent relation between language and culture. Coyle (2007) considers that the rightful place of culture is central to CLIL. Cultural awareness is developed by in-depth understanding of own and others’ culture and a positive interest in both cultures i.e. how they connect and are similar to each other.

In the selected textbook, the content does not represent learner’s environment and culture. Similar findings have been observed in the result of Shah, Majeed, Waheed and Anjum (2013) while analyzing the PTB textbook through a questionnaire. They observe that the textbook is boring and learners do not take much interest in it while learning through textbooks. The textbooks do not represent learners’ culture so they do not focus on it. According to the responses of the teachers, they also want to change foreign elements in the textbook with respect to the cultural elements. Though it provides cultural awareness about other culture yet the textbook included two stories from Pakistani culture so that the learners do not get bore or feel themselves as aliens in the foreign content. There is a stereotypical image of the foreign and local culture. There is no linguistic difficulty or cultural sensitivity in the content. As the material is selected by local bodies and is written by the natives because of that they are far away from the native culture (Shah et al., 2013). Kausar, Mushtaq and Badshah (2016) analysed the intermediate English textbook and found no cultural biasness. There is no use of such visuals as depict cultural stereotypes. Prodromou (1988) and Alpetekin (1993) suggest that inclusion of foreign culture in ELT textbooks has a potential to create serious cultural misunderstandings or comprehension problems that might lack proper schemata to interpret the foreign content. On the whole, the book is free from cultural sensitivities but there should be balance between target and local culture to make the textbook user-friendly.

4. Conclusion  

The aim of this research was to investigate CLIL approach in an intermediate level textbook through textbook evaluation. After the analysis through a CLIL checklist, it has been observed that there is no integration of CLIL principles i.e. content, culture, cognition and communication in the intermediate English textbook. There are many shortfalls in the textbook regarding its content organization, activities engage in critical thinking, lack of authentic material to achieve communicative competence, neglecting integrating language perspective. This indicates that material is not appropriate to ESL/EFL setting. One of the major shortfalls is that the practice of listening and speaking skills is neglected in the exercises and major focus is laid on questions based on reading of lesson content or grammar, (e.g. grammar, punctuation, choose right form of verb, synonyms). There is no such activity as fosters critical thinking in learners. The content presents objective view of culture and involves vocabulary to increase learners’ cognitive progression. Moreover, in CLIL context, language use is different from the language use in language classrooms i.e. the students need to argue, discuss, justify, explain and debate the issues linked with language content use and adequate content for specific vocabulary studies. In intermediate textbook there is no interaction between student- student interaction and student-teacher interaction. The textbook lacks in providing realistic situations of the target as well as learners’ own culture regarding everyday conversations that is the foremost need of the ESL/EFL learners. In addition, the textbook neglected the dimensions of language of learning and language for learning. Language through learning refers to the notion that language learning cannot take place without active participation in thinking and language. CLIL classroom settings demand different levels of interaction and talking as compared to traditional language classroom. The textbook uncovers GTM as teaching methodology and classroom is teacher-centered and opposes curriculum policy claim. Therefore, the textbook does not promote lower order and higher order skills in a balanced way. Most of the exercise questions cover only first two levels of Bloom’s taxonomy (i.e. knowledge and comprehension).

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Investigating Content and Language Integration in an EFL Textbook: A Corpus-Based Study

Amna Arshad

9-21

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